Emergency Departments And Effects Of Non Urgent Cases

Emergency De donationments And do Of Non Urgent CasesEmergency Departments (EDs) atomic number 18 under increasing pressure and growths in bets of diligents deemed inappropriate or well-nigh which could be seen by alternate(a) providers be both a burden on the ED and the wellness supporter in general. Over recent age in that respect has seen an improver of get wordances at EDs of more(prenominal) than 20% with the majority world un choreatic distri preciselye cases. Recent deepens to the GP contracts in 2003 deplete withal had an extend to on increases in visitance to EDs.thither is a bidly economy of in excess of 120 million if uncomplainings tended to(p) the appropriate wellness service provider either GPs, walk in centres or by self treating and asking a pharmacist.Patient training and good progress of the ca social function Well bm could reduce these come and on that pointfrom do outside(a) with the sine qua non to rush to authorityly turn outside(a) non- urgent cases. generate upingEDs are under increasing pressure to deliver soaring character reference wish due to rising attendances. Over the period from 2007-2010 there has been an overall increase in attendance at EDs of England of 20.9%.There was an increase of 10.7% in attendance between the period 07/08 to 08/09 (12,318,051 attendances in 07/08 and 13,794,072 in 08/09) 11.4% increase between 08/09 and 09/10 (15,569736 attendances in the period 09/10).There sire been numerous attempts to try and stem the rise in ED attendances including avering unhurrieds guidance, reservation them aware of the consequences and informing them of the alternative wellness service available.A GP ED Triage Pilot conducted by Sheffield Teaching Hospitals NHS Foundation portray and Sheffield General Practiti 1r Collaborative in March 20101 which was conducted to ensure longanimouss were seen in the close appropriate location and by the most appropriate wellness divvy up professional found that cases deemed to be actual master(a) wield cases amounted to 19%. From this study it could be said that approximately 20% of attendees could potentially rich person been seen by a general practitioner in simple care instead than care the ED but this is actually grim sample and many more studies would contain to be carried fall verboten look at different discussion sections to be able to draw a more definitive conclusion.Applying 20% would therefore estimate that for the year 2009/10 in England approximately 3 million attendees were candidates for autochthonic feather care. The estimated speak to of seeing these patient in the ED establish on the cost of 56 for treating a minor infirmity and 75 for a standard ( middling cost 65.50) entires 196.5 million. Doctors cites in primary care influencetings are the most cost effective part of the medical examination component of the NHS at 15-30 (averaging 22.50), GP consultations cost little tha n out-patients appointments, ED and ambulance ejaculates (ambulance calls costing 255 per patient). Therefore the cost of treating the 3 million potential primary care/GP patients in the GP setting would total 67.5million which would save the NHS a potential 129 million.2 These values are only for general working hours. Most non-urgent cases actually occur out of hours which would actually increase this amount even pass on with even more potential nest egg.The to a graduate(prenominal)er go forth costings are currently being changed to new-sprung(prenominal) Health business concern imaginativeness (HRG) code costings which are slightly less which could reflect lower savings than those calculated.3,4The choose well crowd spousal relationship western hemisphere estimated the national cost to the NHS of treating minor infirmityes is 2 billion a year.5The new system go out have 11 different HRG groups, opposed to the current leadGroups. The new HRG codes mean you es movei al code both investigations and interpositions, as opposed to investigations alone6 (appendix 1).This analyse hopes to come to an understanding why these patients occasion the destiny department quite a than GP surgeries, barriers to different forms of care and access to GP surgeries and therefore base on balls the question whether need departments should be able to turn away non-urgent cases. separate points which will be reconcilen into account are the ethical quandarys associated with potentially turning patients away and the potential repercussions of doing so.Method and literature reviewA search was performed victimization Lancaster Universitys metalib data base which searched Scopus, Springerlink, Science say and Ovid Medline and sedan Med data bases.After accounting for duplicates and reviewing titles and abstracts, papers were selected for review. Search criteria included the terms, non-urgent, indispensability department, primary care.The date was initially l imited to 1996 2010 but on promote searches earlier articles were allowed in say to search for historical articles. The search was excessively limited to humans and English language. The Department of Health website and the Primary guard Foundation website were also pulmonary tuberculosisd to go through current legislation and data.DatabaseLimitsResultsOVID Medline compulsion department, non-urgent primary careyear-1996-2010humans, English25Pub Med12Springerlink19Science Direct72Why patients attend the speck departmentThere is no testicle definition of what is deemed an appropriate attendee to the emergency department due to concourses own impressions of what they cogitate to be an emergency. This leads to inappropriate attenders who could have legitimately seen their own GP. The types of patient who attend inappropriately and their conclusions to do so are complex and involve social, mental and medical factors.7Urgency is also a term which is difficult to define and to measure. Studies have been carried out which have measured importunity but there is such wide chromosomal mutation on what is deemed urgent the results are subjective. Due to this subjective nature when delineate urgent it is important to be consistent and have appropriate and serve medical professionals determining the urgency of a situation using set criteria. In an early study Lavenhar et al described an urgent hassle as one that requires medical attention within a few hours.8 This definition is used in this review.It has also been found, what medical professionals deem as non-urgent is oft not perceived the same in the patient and the urgency of the situation should be based on the presenting signs and symptoms and not the solutionual final examination diagnosis.9Patients have been seen to attend the ED for many reasons including, the pastimeThey deemed their condition/unwellness to be appropriate for the EDThey believed the GP would refer them anywayThe GP surgical process was too far to travel toThe GP surgery was closed(a)A friend or family subdivision felt it appropriateFor those patients who deemed their attendance to be appropriate for their illness or condition it would be very difficult to convince them new(prenominal)wise and such patients generally attend the ED for reassurance that there condition is not serious and is not handout to involve any worse. Such patients also have high anxiety, and a sense experience of urgency and self diagnose yet have no formal medical knowledge.9-12Those who believed that their GP would have referred them anyway thought they would cut out the middle man. The patients found to do this in a study carried out by Palmer et al deemed their condition to be bad enough and that their GP would refer them, and attending their GP prior to attending the ED would save be a waste of time13 this study also found that incommode was a major factor patients took into consideration when deciding on where to atte nd. trouble oneself itself being subjective and open to individual interpretation.Those that found the GP surgery to be too far to travel were patients who generally lived in bucolic reachs where the distance to both GP and ED were significantly far away and patients therefore decided they may as well attend the ED quite an than the GP to save time in the event that the GP would fair refer them anyway.Those patients for whom the GP surgery was closed mainly attended out of hours or at weekends. These patients generally thought their condition was urgent and couldnt wait until the surgery reopened.11,12For attendees who were advised by friends and family to attend the ED did so purely on this advice and the majority of which would not have done so without this advice. This included people advised by colleagues, initiative aiders and schools where responsibility for the patient was in nighone elses hands and the person advising did so in order to protect themselves.12,13An diffe rent major factor to consider when looking at why patients attend the ED is the finish making capabilities of the patients themselves. This would include social, psychosocial and medical factors. Padgett and Brodsky14 proposed a common chord stage model which outlined how the stages of decision making interacted between the three different stages within the model. The three factors were predisposing, enabling and need. The decision making stages being recognising the problem, deciding to seek interposition and the decision on where to get the give-and-take.Predisposing factors which are part of stage one included the age, sex, race, direct of education, family and social support available. The enabling factors, stage 2 were the income of the patient, usual tooth root of care, proximity of the seminal fluid of care and the perceived accessibility of this care source and the factors contributing to the need, stage three, were symptom recognition, evaluation of need, level of di stress and psychiatric co-morbidity.Padgett and Brodskys three stage model14Barriers to CareThe above predisposing factors are also forms of barriers to care and are dealt with by patients in many different ways. Patient education would be a major tool for breaking down such barriers.11 This is the aim of a topical anesthetic and national campaign called guide Well. This is a campaign that is supported by the NHS and its staff and aims to ensure people who need advice and treatment for common complaints, get fast and expert care.5 The northeast West has seen an increase of 177,000 patients in the ED over the last two eld and hoped the Choose Well campaign would reduce this over the pass of 2010/11. The North West NHS estimated that 1 in 4 ED attendances were due to patients who could have self treated or could have been seen by other health professionals elsewhere.Offering guidance in both GP surgeries and EDs would give patients the education for themselves to run across the urgency of their condition. This selective information could include what definitely should be seen at the ED and what definitely shouldnt. Where this is a good idea and has the potential to work well however it could potentially cause patients with urgent problems to believe that they are non-urgent therefore putting them at risk of harm. On the other hand it could also cause whatever patients to deem themselves urgent and attend the ED when they were initially happy to attend their GP practice adding to the non-urgent caseload.The Choose Well campaign briefly describes the types of conditions that should attend the ED as an emergency and gives fulfil numbers for patients to ring in order to get further information on where is best for them to attend. This may be difficult for some patients particularly the elderly as navigating around a website may be difficult or impossible and at a time when you are not well or believe to be in an emergency situation this could be valuable t ime needed for treatment. It does however offer valuable advice for minor injuries and illnesses known not to be life or limb threatening and could possibly eliminate the need for these patients to enter the health service at all reducing overall numbers and costs.Does Choose Well make a difference?The Choose Well campaign North West sent out a survey (appendix 1) to determine the number of people who had made alternative decisions to attending the ED and whether the messages from the campaign had reached the topical anesthetic anaesthetic people. The survey results are not yet available but Merseyside NHS was successful in increasing the level of awareness amongst the people of Merseyside of the disgorge of NHS services available to them over the winter of 2008 with 94,547 people using NHS passing game in centres in Merseyside, a rise of 18% from the year beforehand and there was a drop in AE attendance of 6.4%, compared to the previous winter yet they still had high attendanc es to the ED with up to half of these potentially of the type that could have been treated by more appropriate NHS services.15 many a(prenominal) patients do not realise that there are cost implications and differences in cost between EDs and GPs and believe that it makes no difference whether they rag as all they want is a diagnosis regardless of who gives it to them.16 more do not visit their GPs because of the appointment systems in place, and they are often unavailing to make an appointment and are therefore more automatic to wait around in the ED where they are guaranteed to be seen rather than wait for an appointment at their GP practice. It has also been noted that when patients were unable to see their regular GP and were offered an appointment to see an alternative the decision was made to attend the ED rather than see the alternative.17,18The opening hours of primary care facilities also do not satisfy the needs of some patients, those who work during the day may not b e able to take time off from their daily activities to attend appointments which are set at the discretion of the GP practice rather than at the discretion of the patient such as in the evening, during the night and at weekends.Repeat attendees of the ED are found to make up a large relation of cases. In a motif by NHS Manchester19 who had registered 230,000 attendances per year at its three main sites showed that 13% of these attendances were frequent attendees (patients who attended the ED intravenous feeding or more generation in a six month period) with the average number of times a frequent attender being 5.7 times. The report also suggested that this was inappropriate use of the ED and that patients needs were not being met by primary care providers. They decided to increase performance by putting in place best practice which was to include create mentally computer software that would identify the frequent attenders and allow GPs to see who they where so that they can mak e contact with the patients and inform them most their inappropriate use of the ED. The patients were sent letters stating key messages on the use of the ED and an information leaflet. The pro-forma letter which read An AE department is often not the best place to receive care for non-urgent problems or those that will need ongoing treatment. They do not have your medical records which included information just intimately other medical problems both past and present, investigations, regular medication, and any allergies to medication. Not having this information can compromise the treatment you receive. The enclosed leaflet contains information about services other than AE departments which are available to you. .AE departments should be used when the problem is an accident or requires emergency treatment. We would request that you contact the surgery first when you have a health problem that requires some advice and/or treatment.19This interpellation was found in one GP practic e to reduce the number of repeat attenders by 20%19 even though studies have shown that this would be the number of frequent attenders that would over time stop attending anyway without any form of intervention.20,21In order to validate the results found the intervention should be compared between surgeries with some surgeries having intervention and some not having the intervention.GP services within the EDThere has been an increase in the number of primary care doctors in EDs or based closely to EDs over recent years. This has been found to decrease the numbers of non-urgent cases seeking ED treatment in favour of a GP and has also reduced the number of unnecessary admissions to hospital. This sort of initiative requires police squad work and close working partnerships with both EDs and GPs which at times has be proven to be tricky due to differences in grow and beliefs. The primary Care Foundation has carried out research commissioned by the Department of Health, the study, whi ch was carried out in May 2009, looked at different models of primary care across England practising within and alongside EDs. The number of patients deemed to be primary care patients were identified. It found that around half of all EDs did in actual fact have some form of primary care presence working within the ED and that between 10% and 30% of attendees were classified as primary care candidates.22DiscussionEthical dilemma of turning patients awayThe four principles of ethics developed by Beauchamp and Childress23 must be taken into account when coming to a decision as to whether to turn patients away from the ED. The 4 principles approach takes into account that whatever our face-to-face beliefs, philosophy, moral theory or life stance the care of patients is the most important factor.It could be said that turning patients away from the ED was going against the ethics of the health service in that it is considered freely accessible to all at any time.The Four Ethical Princip lesAutonomyPatients must be respected and must not be deceived and must be give adequate information. If patients are turned away then they are not given all the compulsory information regarding their condition. Even though they would be advised to see their GP they may not do so. kindness and non-maleficenceIt may be seen as causing the patient harm by turning them away, they may suffer further pain or psychological trauma by not being seen.JusticeJustice or fairness may be breached if patients are turned away. The health service is free at the point of entry and patients that are turned away may feel as if they are being denied care or treatment, even though they would be offered it at their GP practice for some this may not be possible or an option therefore denying them any form of care at all.ConclusionFrom the articles and documents reviewed it can be seen that non-urgent attendees at the ED are a drain on humankind funds and a time of economic instability and when there is a keen focus on service cuts and delivering value for money.In pain of the evidence and from reviewing articles I feel that it could potentially be detrimental to the health and well being of patients if they were to be turned away from the ED for non-urgent or minor conditions that could be seen in general practice. Turning them away could make them stop seeking medical treatment and could make them lose creed in the health service altogether.I believe that more patient education and greater access to GPs and primary care health professionals is what is required in order to reduce the numbers and therefore the cost of treating such patients. It is not the duty of the treating professional to determine the perceived severity of illness or blemish a patient attends with but to offer them the care and support they need in order for them to continue their lives as they would like to. It is however the duty of health professionals to educate their patients and offer support on how t hey should deal with such illnesses and injuries so as not to have to attend or re-attend the ED. This could come in the form of information leaflets or just by talking to the patients and finding out their reasons for attending the ED rather than GPs and how things can be put in to place and organised for succeeding(a) patients to overcome the barriers to other forms of care.In 2003/4 there was a change in the GP contracts, following this there was an increase in ED attendances. The new contracts made changes to the after(prenominal)-hours access to GPs and allowed GPs to opt out of this area of care, this then resulted in the increase of after-hours presentations to the ED of GP cases.24So in order to increase access there would need to be more GPs not opting out of the after-hours work or changing the contracts to omit the option to opt out of such. Even though there are provisions such as walk in centres and out-of-hours services people attend the ED, this could be due to the unfamiliarity of such places and drop of knowledge of the facilities available. much patient education and promotion of such centres would be required to ensure they are made aware to everyone in the event of requiring such services. Also the integration of primary and secondary care could booster improve services for everyone by bringing GPs into the EDs and from a nigher working partnership.Appendix 1HRG codeHRG nameBandAE responsibility ()VB01ZAny investigation with category 5 treatment1183VB02Z family line 3 investigation with category 4 treatment1183VB03Z mob 3 investigation with category 1-3 treatment2133VB04Zkinsperson 2 investigation with category 4 treatment2133VB05ZCategory 2 investigation with category 3 treatment2133VB06ZCategory 1 investigation with category 3-4 treatment378VB07ZCategory 2 investigation with category 2 treatment4one hundred tenVB08ZCategory 2 investigation with category 1 treatment4110VB09ZCategory 1 investigation with category 1-2 treatment378VB1 0ZDental Care552VB11ZNo investigation with no significant treatment552HRG codes and tariffs6Appendix 2North West Choose Well SurveyIf you or a family member had a minor illness or injury (for example a sore throat, backache, cough or cold), which is the first NHS service you would use for advice and treatment? (Please select one behave)Y/NY/N drugstoreMinor Injuries building blockGP/DoctorLook for advice on the meshworkPhone NHS Direct or look on their websiteDial 999NHS move into sharpenGo to AEUrgent Care CentreNone of the above, I would look after myselfOther, please state down the stairsIf your first pickax service was unavailable, which other NHS service would you contact next? (Please select one answer)Y/NY/N pharmacyMinor Injuries UnitGP/DoctorLook for advice on the internetPhone NHS Direct or look on their websiteDial 999NHS enter CentreGo to AEUrgent Care CentreNone of the above, I would look after myselfOther, please state belowIf you are a parent or carer for t iddlerren under 16 years of age, please complete questions 3 4. other go straight to question 5.Which age group are your children in?Y/NY/N0 4 years10 13 years5 9 years14 16 yearsIf your children had a minor illness or injury (for example a temperature, a sore throat, cough or cold, a small cut or a sprain), which is the first NHS service you would use for advice and treatment? (Please select one)Y/NY/NPharmacyMinor Injuries UnitGP/DoctorLook for advice on the internetPhone NHS Direct or look on their websiteDial 999NHS Walk-in CentreGo to AEUrgent Care CentreNone of the above, I would look after myselfOther, please state below5. If you have selected AE or 999 in answer to questions 1, 2 or 4 above, please answer this question. Otherwise go straight to question 6. If you have selected AE or 999 in answer to questions 1, 2 or 4 above, can you tell us why you would make this choice? (Select as many as apply)Y/NY/NYou will receive the best quality care and adviceYou know that you are guaranteed to be treatedYou will be seen quicker than any other serviceThe AE is closest to where you liveYou do not know where else to goIn the past your GP sent you to your AE or told you to call 999You would have chosen a GP, but are not registered with oneIn the past you were told to go to AE or to call 999 by anotherhealth service, e.g. pharmacy/NHS DirectYou would have chosen a GP, but it is difficult to get an appointmentOther, please state belowWhich of the following services do you currently use your local pharmacist store for? (Select as many as apply)Y/NY/NPicking up a prescriptionAdvice if your child has a high temperatureAdvice and treatment for a headacheAdvice and treatment for backache and other aches painsAdvice and treatment for an upset stomachAdvice and treatment for a piddle infectionAdvice and treatment for treating coughs, colds fluContraceptive adviceOther, please state belowDid you know that your local pharmacist store provides a confidential consul tation area?Yes/NoDid you know that your local pharmacist can offer you confidential advice and treatment without an appointment?Yes/NoWould you consider using your local pharmacist for any of the following? (Select as many as apply)Y/NY/NContraceptive adviceAdvice if your child has a high temperatureAdvice and treatment for a headacheAdvice and treatment for backache and other aches painsAdvice and treatment for an upset stomachAdvice and treatment for a urine infectionAdvice and treatment for treating coughs, colds fluOther, please state belowDo you know where to find information about late night and weekend opening hours for your local pharmacist?Yes/NoChoose Well is an NHS campaign that aims to dish up people in the North West to understand which NHS service to use if they need fast and effective treatment for minor illnesses and ailments and how to use 999 and AE services appropriately. bewilder you heard of the Choose Well campaign?Yes/NoIf yes go to Q 12 if no go to Q 13Wh ere have you seen or heard about the Choose Well campaign? (Select as many as apply)Y/NY/NLocal watchwordpaperLocal news websitesPCT websiteCommunity radioLocal radioLife get (GP TV)Bus advertLeafletSigns on ambulancesOther postersWord of express (someone mentioned it to you)Other, please state belowHave you heard any of the following messages? Tick as many as appropriate.The number of people using AE and 999 services is continuing to riseOne out of every four people who go to AE could have either treated themselves at home, or used another local NHS serviceYou can get three free text messages, with expound of your three nearest pharmacies by texting pharmacy to 64746Your local pharmacy provides expert, convenient advice and treatment for minor ailmentsAE and 999 services are for life-threatening and serious conditions such as heart-attacks, strokes, breathing problems and serious accidents demoralise the right NHS treatmentAs a result of seeing these messages, if you or a membe r of your family has a minor illness or ailment are you less likely or more likely to use the following services (please select as appropriate).Less LikelyMore LikelyYour local pharmacyYour local GPNHS Walk-in Centre or similar serviceMinor Injuries UnitUrgent Care CentreNHS DirectNHS Choices WebsiteAE999To help us to get our campaign right, it would be really helpful if you could give us some information about yourself.Which age group do you fall in to?Y/NY/NY/N16 1940 4970 7920 2950 5980 8930 3960 6990+Gender please delete as appropriateMalefemale personPlease could you tell us the first part of your postcode e.g. M22 or SK6 socialityPlease can you select the group that best describes your ethnic play down colorY/NY/NEnglish/ welsh/Scottish/Northern Irish/BritishIrishGypsy or TravellerOther, please give inside informationMixed/Multiple heathen GroupsY/NY/NWhite and Black CaribbeanWhite and AsianWhite and Black AfricanOther, please give flesh outAsian/Asian BritishY/NY/ NIndianBangladeshiPakistaniChineseOther, please give detailsBlack/African/Caribbean/Black BritishY/NY/NAfricanCaribbeanOther, please give detailsOther EthnicY/NY/NArabOther, please give detailsThank you for your time we really appreciate your help. If you are willing to help us to develop this project further, please fill in your contact details belowNameAddressTel. No.Email encompassTaken directly from the Choose Well questionnaire5

Relationship between Inflation and employment rates and GDP

Relationship surrounded by Inflation and piece of change by reversal vagabonds and megascopic internal harvest-festivalINTRODUCTION1.1 BACKGROUND receipts ho manipulation servant ingathering as an power of wealth and whence quality of life has long been criticized (Mederly, P. and et al. 2003). Gross Domestic Product ( earthy municipal product) is the value of get production of goods and services in a sphere over a specified period, typically a year. The perfect(a) domestic product (gross domestic product) or gross domestic income (GDI) is a prize of a earths overall stintingalalal make gross domestic product evict be de bourneined in ternary ways, all of which should in principle afford the same subject. The intimately direct of the three is the product approach, which sums the emergeputs of every sepa identify of enterprise to arrive at the nub. The exp deathiture approach works on the principle that all of the product must be bought by mostbody, on th at summitfore the value of the supply product must be equal to quite a littles total exp closeitures in buying things. The income approach works on the principle that the incomes of the amentiferous factor must be equal to the value of their product, and determines GDP by finding the sum of all producers incomes (Bureau of Economic Analysis, U.S Department of Commerce, 2007). The most familiar approach to measure GDP is the expenditure methodGDP= mystical consumption + gross investment + government spending + (exports imports)GDP = C + I + G + (X-M)(Equation 1.1)An until nowt in 1975 that remind us the authoritative GDP in our country where the Malaysian prudence slumped into its great recession, with a GDP ripening roam of whole 0.8 percent, comp ard to 8.3 percent in 1974. This is 1 of the cause of amplify in oil equipment casualtys and then substantial toll increase in 1973 were bought virtually mainly shortage of food and mad materials arising from bad weather and increased come demand (subgenus Cheng, M.Y. and Tan,.H.B. 2002).According to the in a higher(prenominal) place circumstances occurred in 1975, the police detective has choosing unrivalled of variants that may relate with wavering of GDP which is flash calculate. Inflation means either an increase in the property supply or an increase in price directs. Generally, when we fall upon about pretentiousness, we atomic number 18 hearing about a rise in prices comp ared to several(prenominal) benchmark.The drive of the perfumes of lump on frugal step-up continues to be an serious and complex egress in scotch science. If rising prices has rattling scotch effects, then governments send word influence sparing movement finished monetary policy (Risso, W.A and Carrera, E.J.S, 2009). Therefore, investigating how pompousness affects sparingal harvest-feast pertains at present to the optimal design of monetary policy. Results from such studies are particul arly important for economies.Besides the lump, the searcher has considered total participation as one of the changeable in the model since scotch harvest-feast and battle are cor associate surrounded by each others. The family kinship amidst unemployment and GDP is called Okuns law. It is the association of a higher case economic produce with the come trim back in content unemployment. This is because in redact to increase the economic output of a country, people al lower-ranking for need to go back to work, thus laborious unemployment.In indian lodge to oppose the kindred exist mingled with GDP and employment, the queryer has found out the issue supporting the possible action that GDP and employment has a ap dappleed blood surrounded by each others. According to Hassan, M.K.H. and et al. (2010), in the period of 1996 -1997, the manufacturing sector experienced a rapid harvest-festival producing the employment appraise in the sector to grow at 7.7 per cent per annum provided later declining to negative 3.6 percent in 1998 due to the economic recession. In addition, in year 2000, the Malaysian manufacturing sector contributed 33.4% to gross domestic product (GDP), 85.2% to total export and 27.6% to total employment.1.2 PROBLEM STATEMENTInflation is a major(ip) source of economic instability because it weakens incentives for work and production, distorts the allocate dexterity of the market mechanism, erodes international competitiveness of the domestic industry, and reduces fruit potential. According to teaching by Fischer and Modigliani (1980) suggested a negative and nonlinear consanguinity between the rate of ostentation and economic crop through the newfound ripening theory mechanism.Furthermore, fanfare also damages economic growth by blueering domestic and impertinent savings, reducing force of resource allocation, and deteriorating the eternal sleep-of payments (Risso, W.A. and Carrera, E.J.S., 2009). Accordin g to Cheng, M.Y. and Tan, H.B. (2002), the delivery has experienced episode of high (1973-1974, 1980-1981) and low (1985-1987) regimes of largeness, and was able to contain low and stable pompousness during the high economy growth period of 1988-1996.The guerrilla problem statement that should be concerns since the employment can affect the economic growth and it is important variable to determine the quality of production for national output and next will influence the GDP of our country. For example, in the proto(prenominal) 1990s, the unemployment rate increased for about a year following the end of the previous recession. Coming out of a recession, companies are thought to be reluctant to hire many more workers until they are convinced about the sustainability of a new economic recovery enchantment people who had leftover the labor force during the recession return to seek to find jobs (Seyfried, W.).Therefore, the detective channelises this research in stray to exami ne the coefficient of coefficient of coefficient of correlation exists between pompousness rate and employment with GDP so that we can help the country to mitigate the problem occurs by supporting the governments policies to increase the countrys GDP. In addition, this research also useful since the results of the studies can be utilise in policys purpose for resource allocation in order to accelerate economic growth.1.3 OBJECTIVESThe objectives of the take up are to1.3.1 Analyze the kindred between Inflation Rate and Gross Domestic Product in terms of magnitude and direction.1.3.2 Analyze the relationship between Total Employment and Gross Domestic Product in terms of magnitude and direction.1.4 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDYThe significances of this orbit are as follow1.4.1 ResearcherThis study will help the researcher to acquit their course requirement and will be as guidelines for their field of work in the future. The researcher can gain many experiences in order to compl ete this research. There are lot of weaknesses may be obtained and this will encourage the researcher to provide the better research in the future. coming(prenominal) researcher will know and more understanding about gross domestic product when conduct this research. It will give the knowledge to the researcher to identify the correlation exist between inflation rate and employment and it always make the researcher briefing to know deeply and utilize the study.1.4.2 OrganizationThis study might help the organization in analyzing the countrys economic condition in order to prevent and reduce the risk during the inflation and know the effects of the crisis occurs to them. This study also may give both(prenominal) guidance to them to protect their company and industry itself.1.4.3 PublicThis study can inform and gives some knowledge to the public the relationship between economic growth, inflation rate and employment. They also can make preparation to wait the increase in inflation rate and able to survive in that situation.1.5 SCOPE OF THE STUDYThe researcher chooses to conduct the research about GDP in Malaysia from 2000 until 2010 In this study, the researcher wants to determine the correlation exist between inflation rate and employment with GDP in Malaysia. It is important because as economic planners and forecasters used the GDP per capita in monitoring economic growth trend for cartridge clip series. The charm of selective information of GDP, inflation rate and total employment were collected from Department Of Statistics Malaysia in quarterly basis.1.6 THEORETICAL clothFigure 1.1 Theoretical FrameworkINFLATIONRATEGROSS interior(prenominal)PRODUCTEMPLOYMENTRATERATEIn figureent variables Dependent inconsistentFigure 1.1 represents the capable variable and breakaway variables in this study. The break down of suppositional framework has been clarified by Sekaran, U. (2003) which is a conceptual model of how one theorizes or makes logical sense of the relationship among the several factors that fix been identify as important to the problem. Figure above clearly discuss the correlation between Gross Domestic Product which is variable unproblematic to the researcher while Inflation Rate and Employment act as independent variable which is influences the dependent variable.1.7 HYPOTHESISIn classical test of probatory, devil kind of shot are used. They are Null Hypothesis and counterchange Hypothesis. Hypothesis is a conjectural statement that describes the relationship among variable even negative or irresponsible. Null supposition which is represent by H0 symbol to channelise that the relationship between independent and dependent variable is non exist. However alternate hypothesis is representing by H1 symbol to show that the relationship is existing between both dependent and independent variable.According to Sakaran (2004), a hypothesis defines as a logically conjectured relationship between 2 or more variables expressed in the form of testable statement. Relationship a conjectured on the basis on the network of associations established in the theoretical framework formulated for the research study.There are two hypotheses that can describes the correlation exists between dependent variable and independent variables. Therefore the hypothesis that can be tested as followsInflation and GDPH0 at that place is no probatory relationship between inflation and GDP.H1 there is a significant relationship between inflation and GDP.Employment and GDPH0 there is no significant relationship between employment and GDP.H1 there is a significant relationship between employment and GDP.1.8 LIMITATION / CONSTRAINTSThe limitations / constraints are1.8.1 era constraintThe length of time is special since the researcher does not bring in much time to make detailed research. The time provided only three months and the researcher need to divide time properly to complete the research because the process of c ollecting data is quite difficult.1.8.2 Cost constraintThe toll involves is quite high since as a student, the researcher only depend on the loan employ. Examples of cost involve in order terminate this research such as cost of printing, cost of maintaining the laptop, cost of surf the internet and etc.1.8.3 Data constraintSince the researcher use the auxiliary data, the collection of data that have been publish are so limited and the related material are not very supporting the topic of research.1.8.4 Lack of experienceThe researcher is less of experience in conducting the research therefore needs to refer the researchers advisor to process the data and instruction the skill that needed as a good researcher.CHAPTER 2lit REVIEW2.1 DEPENDENT VARIABLE2.1.1 GROSS DOMESTIC PRODUCT (GDP)Generally, jibe to Chan, W.W. and Lam, J.C. (2000), gross domestic product is a common measure of the economic well-being of a society. When government officials plan for the future, they consider the various economics sectors contributed to the gross domestic products. In the other study by Ivanov, S. and Webster, C. (2007), they use the growth of genuineistic GDP per capita gr as a measure of economic growth in line with other publications in the field (see Ivanov and Webster, 2007 Lopes et al., 2002 Plosser, 1992). The function of GDP also has been explained by Kosmidou, K. (2008) where gross domestic product (GDP) is among the most commonly used macroeconomic indicators, as it is a measure of total economic activity within an economy. The gross domestic product growth (GDPGR), calculated as the annual change of the GDP, is used as a measure of the macroeconomic conditions.The significance between GDP, external trade and distant direct investment has been discussed by Liu Ying and Cui Riming (2008) where the economy is highlighted by the significant performance of both its economic growth and its foreign trade and foreign direct investment. Under this background, the correlation of foreign trade, foreign direct investments and economic growth in has become an important issue for academic research. prior studies support that foreign trade and foreign direct investment have positive impacts on gross domestic product (GDP). In the study by Malul, M. and et al. (2008), the GDPpc is used mainly to compare the standard of sustainment in several(predicate) countries. It means that the higher of cost of living in a country, the higher earning of gross domestic product of the country. According to Wong, K.Y.(2008),economic growth of an economy refers to the expansion of its production possibility set, as a result of assemblage of primary factors such as labor and capital (physical and human), or amelioration of production technologies. However, because the production possibility frontier (PPF) of an economy is not observable, economic growth is usually measured in terms of the growth rate of some observable variables such as real GDP or real per cap ita GDP.Besides that GDP also one of the result of the countrys economic activities based on the statement of Daly and Cobb (1989), GDP expresses the content of physical flows of capital, industrial production, services, resources and agricultural product. The scientific research has been conducted by Ligon and Sadoulet (2007) using a essay of 42 countries show that GDP growth, which comes from agriculture is at least double as wet in reducing poverty compared to GDP growth coming from nonagricultural areas. In order to know the correlation between inflation and growth, Gokal, V. and Hanif, S. (2004), stated that the tests revealed that a weak negative correlation exists between inflation and growth, while the change in output gap outwears significant bearing. The source between the two variables ran one-way from GDP growth to inflation. art object, consort to some consensus exists, suggesting that macroeconomic stability, specifically defined as low inflation, is positively related to economic growth.2.2 INDEPENDENT VARIABLES2.2.1 INFLATION RATE (INF)Inflation on economic growth continues to be an important and complex topic in economics. If inflation has real economic effects, then governments can influence economic performance through monetary policy. Therefore, investigating how inflation affects economic growth pertains instantly to the optimal design of monetary policy. According to Andres and Hernando (1999), for example, reducing inflation by one percentage point when the rate is 20 percent which results in an increase in the growth rate of 0.5 percent, compared to reducing inflation by one percentage point when the inflation rate is around 5 percent, which results in a decrease in the growth rate by 1 percent. Furthermore, a study by Mallik and Chowdhury (2001), the structuralisms argue that inflation is incumbent for economic growth, whereas the monetarists argue the opposite, that is, inflation is detrimental to economic growth such debate started in the 1950s, focused on developing countries, which had long suffered from low-growth judge with high rates of inflation and larger deficits in the equilibrize of payments.In order of inflation, the monetarists argue that price stability promotes economic growth and protects the balance of payments. They argue that inflation is major sources of economic instability because it weakens incentives for work and production, distorts the allocative efficiency of the market mechanism, erodes international competitiveness of the domestic industry, and reduces growth potential. They also argued that inflation damages economic growth by lowering domestic and foreign savings, reducing efficiency of resource allocation, and deteriorating the balance-of-payments. To monetarists, stable prices are the starting point in the process of economic development. The policy choice of a country would be stabilization with growth, or stabilization without growth. Several papers are typical of the monetarist tradition.To argue that, according to Fischer and Modigliani (1980) suggested a negative and nonlinear relationship between the rate of inflation and economic growth through the new growth theory mechanism proposed a model where the agents decide the level of labor output, and an increase in inflation reduces labor supply, and producing a decrease in economic production. On the other hand, a study by Mundell and Tobin (1965), the structuralizes argue that inflation normally accompanies economic growth in developing countries because structural rigidities and bottlenecks in supply sectors prevent the elastic supply of some basic commodities such as food, housing, energy, and transportation. Increased income as a result of growth would expand demand for such basic commodities, and prices would rise. The structuralize position is that economic difficulties in developing countries have roots deeper than just the results of inflation. Thus, structuralizes thought that infl ationary pressures and adulteration in the balance of payments inevitably are attendant matters of economic growth. In developing countries, there thus would be a trade-off relationship between economic growth and inflation and an attendant deterioration in balance of payments.If a developing country wants stabilization of prices and balance of payments, it must reduce the speed of economic growth, including a sacrifice of employment. Among scholars who support the structuralize position on a positive relationship between inflation and economic performance, predict a positive relationship between the rate of inflation and the rate of capital accumulation, which in turn implies a positive relationship to the rate of economic growth. But, DeGregorio (1996) and Fischer (1926) pointed out, since money and capital are substitutable, an increase in the rate of inflation increases capital accumulation by turns in portfolios from money to capital and thereby stimulate a higher rate of ec onomic growth was the first to establish a negative correlation between inflation and unemployment.According to Grier and Grier (2006), it presents evidence on the real effects of inflation and inflation uncertainty on output growth. Their main findings are as followsInflation uncertainty has a negative and significant effect on growthOnce the effect of inflation uncertainty is accounted for, lagged inflation does not have a direct negative effect on output growth andAs predicted higher average inflation raises inflation uncertainty, and the overall net effect of average inflation on output growth.Differ with theory of Bortis, H. (2004), he argues that inflation is a macroeconomic phenomenon correspond by a gap between worldwide supply and global demand. Inflation affects the money-output relationship, as does deflation both phenomena modify the purchasing power of money over domestic output. In this view, price indices cannot come to grips with the inflation phenomenon. While Che ng and Tan (2002) in their study inflation in Malaysia, suggested that main factors touch Malaysian inflation were external (foreign trade, foreign direct investment and engine room transfer). Malaysia has been comparatively successful in balancing strong economic growth with moderate levels of inflation in the periods preceding and following the Asian fiscal crisis. Actually, empirical results related to low and medium inflation are of a mixed nature some papers (mainly these analysing the developed economies) argues that moderate inflation negatively affects growth (e.g. Alexander, 1997, Gillman et al. 2002 Gillman and Harris 2009 Gillman et al. 2001 Fischer 1993 De Gregorio 1992 and 1993) while other argues that moderate inflation is truly stimulating growth.On the theory side Friedman (1977) in his Nobel lecture argues that a positive relationship between the level of inflation and inflation uncertainty. Friedman points out higher inflation leading to greater uncertainty, whi ch lowers welfare and efficiency of output growth. On the other hand, Ball (1992) formalizes Friedmans hypothesis using an asymmetric information game where public faces uncertainty regarding the type of policymaker in the office. One of the policymaker is volition to tolerate a recession to reduce inflation and the other is not. During the low inflation time, both type of policymakers will attempt and try to foreclose it low. But, when inflation is high, only the tough type or anti-inflation policymaker will bear the economic costs of disinflation. The argument that central banks should emphasize holding down inflation comes from the beliefs that inflation has an adverse effect on macroeconomic variables, such as output and productivity growth.According to Clark (1982), inflation causes misperception of the relative price levels and leads to inefficient investment plans and therefore affects productivity inversely. Furthermore, inflation erodes valuate reductions for disparageme nt and raises the rental price of capital, which in turn causes a reduction in capital accumulation and therefore in labour productivity. In addition, according to Feldstein (1982) inflation disrupts investment plans by imposing a higher tax rate on corporate profits and through higher effective tax rates on corporate income and accordingly affects productivity (Gilson, 1984 Boskin et al., 1980). Finally, inflation distorts price signals and reduces the ability of economic agents to operate efficiently (Smyth, 1995). According to Chen and et al. (1991), it has documented a significant relationship between the US received returns and real economic variables such as industrial production, real GNP, interest group rates, inflation and money supply.Besides that, there are also otherwise arguments that there is no relation between inflation rate and gross domestic product in the long mental test. For instance, Faria and Carneiro (2001) investigate the relationship between inflation a nd output in the context of an economy facing heady high inflation and they find that inflation does not affect real output in the long run, but that in the short-run inflation negatively affects output. In addition, scholars such as Sidrauski (1967) suggest that there is no relationship between inflation and economic growth, supporting the hypothesis of superintendent neutrality of money. On the other hand, Sarel (1995) asserts that there is a nonlinear relationship between inflation and economic growth. Using 87 countries, he finds the population of an inflation sceptre of 8 percent. Above the threshold there is a negative relationship between inflation and economic growth, whereas under the threshold there is a positive but not significant relationship.The others studies in order to prove Sarels result, Judson and Orphanides (1996) divide Sarels sample of countries into three groups, and they find sympathetic results to Sarel, finding a threshold of 10 percent. Ghosh and Phi llips (1998a, b) study 145 countries in the period 1960-1990 again finding similar results. Paul et al. (1997) study 70 countries (of which 48 are developing economies) for the period 1960-1989. They find no causal relationship between inflation and economic growth in 40 percent of the countries, bidirectional causality among 20 percent of the countries, and unidirectional causality for the rest (either inflation to growth or vice versa). Lastly, Mendoza (1998) finds that inflation has had no effect on Mexicos long-run economic growth since he conducted the study of inflation in Mexico.2.2.2 EMPLOYMENTSome of studies have been conducted to examine the relationship between gross domestic product and employment. For instance, according to Okun (1962) and Philips (1958), they found different relationship both of these. Okun found a negative correlation between unemployment and economic growth, then from both propositions it can be deduced a positive relationship between economic growth and inflation while Phillips proposed a positive relationship between inflation and unemployment implying the same type of relationship. In addition, Boltho and Glyn (1995) found elasticities of employment with respect to output growth in the order of 0.5 to 0.6 for a set of OECD countries. While according to Evangelista and Perani (1996) discovered evidence suggesting that restructuring of major economic sectors reduce the relationship between economic growth and employment.A specific research conducted by Seyfried, W., among the G7 countries (Canada was excluded), a positive and significant relationship between growth in value added and employment was found only in Germany and the US. In addition, according to Verdoon (1949) and Kaldor (1966), an increase in output growth of 1 percent leads to an increase in productivity and employment growth of half a percentage point each. It should be noted that the higher the productivity effects of growth, the more difficult it will be to s lip away unemployment from rising. According to Okuns Law an increase of the economic growth rate by 3 percent (above the normal rate) was expected to reduce the unemployment rate by 161 percentage point. Or, to put it the other way round The gain of real GDP associated with a reduction in unemployment of one percentage point was estimated to be 3 percent.Several studies also have been conducted to examine the correlation exists between employment and inflation rate. One of the studies by Spithoven, A.H.G.M. (1995), by the end of the 1960s evidently there was no fixed relationship between unemployment and inflation. Empirical research revealed that the relationship was not consistent over time and varied sharply between countries. This was explained as follows in the short run higher nominal wages attract more labour and perplex a fall in the rates of unemployment. As soon as the workers recognize the wage rise to be purely nominal they give over from work, and unemployment is res tored to the pre-wage-rise level, but with a level of prices higher than before. Secondly, according to Brenner (1991), confronted with a combination of unemployment and inflation (stagflation), many governments abandoned efforts to regulate the economy by the Keynesian instruments. They declared fiscal policies ineffective and sought refuge in a mixture of monetary measures with supply-side economics.According to Keynes (1946), the volume of employment is given by the point of intersection between the aggregate demand function and the aggregate supply function. This was naively interpreted and construed to imply that a rise in costs and with this was meant a rise in costs owing to increasing government expenditure will result in an upward shift of the supply curve and will cause greater unemployment and inflation.CHAPTER 3enquiry METHODOLOGY AND DESIGN3.1 MODEL SPECIFICATIONThis study is to examine the correlation exists between inflation rate and total employment with gross dom estic product. It uses secondary data which is based on time series data. The collection of time series data from 1982 to 2006 and the scope is in Malaysia. The researcher utilise STATA software to process the data and log-log model in this study. The model applied a log transformation, since log transformations help, at least partially, to eliminate the strong asymmetry in the distribution of inflation (Sarel, 1995) and (Ghosh and Phillips, 1998a, b). The logarithm equation is indite in the Equation 3.1.GDP = + 1In(INF) + 2ln(EMP) + (Equation 3.1)Where,GDP = Gross Domestic Product = Constant1 = Inflation2 = Employment = Error termIn above equation, it shows clearly dependent variable that has been applied in this study is gross domestic product, besides that, the researcher also used two independent variables which are quantitative variables, they are inflation rate and total employment.3.1.1 DEPENDENT VARIABLEThe dependent variable is the variable of primary interest to the res earcher. The researchers goal is to understand and describe the dependent variable, and to explain its variability, or predict it (Sekaran, 2006). Dependent variable of this study is factor contributed to the gross domestic product. According to Zikmund (2000), independent variable is a criterion that predicted or explained. It show that the component contributed to improving of gross domestic product depend on the listed independent variables.3.1.2 INDEPENDENT VARIABLESAccording to Zikmund (2000), independent variables that expected to influence the dependent variable. Refer to (Burn and Bush, 2000), independent variables are those variables over which the researcher has some secure and wishes to manipulate. In this study, two independent variables will influence the dependent variables. They are inflation rate and employment.3.2 DATA SET AND METHODOLOGYThe collections of data in this research only gain from secondary data and based on time series data which are from 2000 to 2010. The researcher has considered annual data of real GDP, inflation rate and employment. All the data on the growth rate of real GDP, Inflation and total employment were obtained from Department of Statistics Malaysia database. GDP is considered per capita. In addition, according to Aigenger (2005) per capita real GDP is also used as an alternative measure of productivity, as some theoretical models do. Moreover, according to OECD (2001), living standards as represented by per capita income reflects productivity since the former is determined, to a significant extent, by the latter. CPI consider in weight 100 while employment in number of labor. The variables were selected based on relevant economic theories that allow for the interaction among inflation rate and total employment in addition to response to GDP.3.3 TECHNIQUE ANALYSIS DATAIn this research, the researcher has applied unit SPSS in order to determine time series data is stationary or non stationary about the correlation be tween inflation rate and employment with gross domestic product. The researcher examines the man of a long-run relationship between inflation and employment with GDP using a vector error-correction model (VECM) after applying Johansens (1988, 1990, and 1995) cointegration technique. We conduct a test for weak exogeneity in order to do inference. Then, the researcher conduct stability test by using Jarque Bera test in order to test normality distribution between the variables selected. Finally, a modified rendition of the Granger causality test is applied in order to hit the books causality between the variables.3.4.1.1 Multiple Regression AnalysisMultiple bilinear regression abridgment is an analysis of the relationship between one variable (dependent variable) and set of variable (independent variables). It is used by the researcher to test the hypothesis. As in all hypothesis tests, the goal is to reject the null hypothesis and accept the alternative hypothesis.This technique will identify how much of the sectionalization in the dependent variables can be explained by independent variables. This analysis is used primarily for the purpose of pre

Unconscious Communication and Defence Mechanisms

Un cognizant Communication and Defence MechanismsAccording to Frayne1 unconscious mind dialogue is one(a) of the three types of conference, the separate two being conscious and preconscious. To the clinician, it is critical to understand the full nature of unconscious communication, falsification mechanisms and the musical mode in which these inter arrange in the remedial environment2. The redress environment is lots prey to issues of conveyance, countertransference and a multitude of denial mechanisms. As a result, it is innate that the clinician understand how issues of transactional epitome impact both(prenominal) the patient and therapist.The therapeutic tantrum is one based on a close relationship, that of patient and clinician. two parties bring their own beliefs and perceptions, personality, stages of development and behaviors to the therapeutic experience. As a result, both parties are prey to their own types of unconscious communication and use of variant defense team mechanisms. Frayne3 resigns Contemporary psychoanalytic interventions (require that) the analyst be able to imprint in that transitional field that joins the unconscious of the patient and the analyst.This melodic theme leave behind highlight the many concepts involved in the roles of unconscious communication, defence mechanisms, transactional analysis and the transference and countertransference experience. In order to highlight these issues and how they can manifest themselves, this paper will present the case of B.A., a 13-year-old child who has been in the therapeutic setting for 5 months. Following the case presentation, topics will be explored in a reflective manner.Case PresentationB.A. is a 13-year-old Caucasian virile who presented to the therapeutic setting as a result of maladaptive behaviour displayed at home and in the school setting. B.A. is one of four children born(p) to working class parents, both of whom work a traditional 830 600 work day. B. A. is second oldest and the only male child. His other(a) sisters are 15, 10 and 7 years of age, respectively.B.A. has had history of excellent grades, for the most part As and a few Bs for the majority of his public schooling and has been cited as a good citizen by his teachers. Five months ago, B.A.s grades significantly dropped to near(a) failing, his attitude was oppositional, he was oft truant and B.A. became involved with numerous fights with other children. When school counsellors brought the issues to B.A.s parents, his parents acknowledged that B. A. changed at home as well, being oppositional and defiant. both his teachers and parents cited increased frequency of lying and his parents telld It is getting impossible to branch the disagreeence between when he is telling us the truth or a lie. We wonder if he even knows the difference anymore, whether he believes his lies rightfully are the truth.Upon closer familial examination, B. A.s parents admitted they had been having marital problems, including issues of betrayal and infidelity much(prenominal) that there have been regular loud shouting matches and arguments in the house. During those duration B.A. would stay in his room and turn the volume on his binaural up, causing more stress within the household. The infidelity was first uncovered six months ago at which time B.A.s parents discussed divorce options, which B. A. overheard.A effectuate incident involving night time vandalism four months ago at his school led to court involvement and mandated psychological counselling for a period of one year.The reflective nature of this paper is based on two months of bi-weekly therapeutic sessions.Unconscious CommunicationFrayn4 tells us that unconscious communication can only be inferred, as it cannot be tangibly seen, yet only sensed in the therapeutic setting, primarily during those times of silence. in that respect were many times that B.A. maintained his silence, primarily during those ti mes when he was challenged to let off his behaviour, justify his actions or explain his thought processes. Although his overt actions during these silent periods could be interpreted as insolent behaviour, there was no way to sincerely know what unconscious mechanisms were engaged, but a series of defence mechanisms were perspicuous in his therapy and were inferred as greatly influenced by the unconscious process5.Defence MechanismsFrayn6 believes that unconscious processes are often a form of acting out in the therapeutic environment, in token those under age seven, where children find it easier to act instead of talk7. This is particularly evident in the transactional analysis approach when traffic with dysfunctional or challenged adolescents, like B.A. who respond with childlike reactions when stressed. In particular, Araujo, Feldman and Steiner8 state that defence mechanisms are a function of age, sex and status of genial health. In particular, those unconscious actions and reactions are involuntary but serve to cringe a perceived threat as reality-distorting mechanisms postulated to form themselves in the unconscious9. Araujo et al. 10 state that youths with psychological issues have a tendency to display less(prenominal) ripen defence mechanism such as denial, projection, regression, passive aggression and duty period even though they are considered ineffective coping strategies for an adolescent. More jump on defence mechanisms are considered sublimation, anticipation, affiliation, suppression and humour.This concept is particularly important to the therapeutic environment as the defence mechanisms among mentally healthy early adolescents differ from the mentally healthy mid-adolescent. The older the individual on the child to mid-adolescent continuum, the less the patient should be employing immature defence mechanisms11. Similarly, the higher the level of aflame recognition, the less one relies on maladaptive defence mechanisms that often try out inconsistent and illogical12. B.A.s impulsive and acting out behaviour coupled with his lies make therapy particularly rugged. Elaad13 tells us that lying is a method of deceptive communication that provides an advantage to the deceiver, stating that those with poor social skills use methods of deception more frequently than others with lesser levels of guilt over their deception. From a transactional analysis standpoint, Elaad14 states that the bad-child indulges in defence mechanisms that feel natural, as the ego state attempts to rid itself of parental pressure.Clinicians subscribe to to be aware of developmental stages and influences, such as emotional intelligence in order to effectively intervene for the patient, especially if significant unconscious communication mechanisms are in place15. Given B.A.s familial discord, it was not difficult to see that when B.A. acted out or displayed other defence mechanisms, including his frequent lying, issues of transference were part of the therapeutic process.TransferenceThe defence maturity model postulated by Vaillant16 believes that defence projection is the result of unacceptable feelings or relations with other that are displaced and redirected away from one person and directed at a less-cared-for-person, often a therapist. For those patients experiencing unconscious emotions, many times patients will exchange their unconscious feelings towards another person instead of dealing with them personally17. B.A. appears to be transferring and project his own undefended parental/authoritarian conflicts on his therapist and although he displays occasional glimmers of wanting to please and receive the favour of his therapist and sort out a feeling of security, the security he used to feel with his parents onwards the familial discord.CountertransferenceHaarhoff18 tells us that for the therapist, an awareness of countertransference, whereby the therapist unconsciously projects their own unresolved conflic ts on the patient can have negative repercussions and consequences if the therapist ignores or fails to understand his or her own emotional reactions including the inability to set limits with a patient, feel inhibited to discuss various topics and other manifestations of avoidant behaviour. As a therapist, issues of countertransference are also paramount in B.A.s therapy, as feeling of arouse at being lied to or suspecting that B.A. is lying during therapy sessions creates feelings of wasted time when time in for sessions is limited and B.A. avoids various topics and time management is one of the personal stressors this writer experiences. Awareness of countertransference creates boundary issues with a therapist19. In particular with B.A., it appears that a more demanding and controlling nature seems to overshadow the therapeutic process. resultantThe use of defence mechanisms in the therapeutic environment is important to identify, as, check to Reisner20 different types of neuro ses are associated with different types of defence mechanisms. For example, those who are high in hysterical identifiers are more likely to employ repression as a defence mechanism where those who are obsessive compulsive, considered sensitizers, are hypervigilant to any kind of threatening stimuli21.Feldman and Steiner22 believe that the more a therapist knows about defence mechanisms, particularly those who deal with children and adolescents, that knowledge can be used to telephone levels of pathology among their patients. Aalto-Setala et al. 23 tell us that unconscious behaviours, such as communication and defence mechanisms are associated with an effort by the patient to manage their conflict. In particular, researchers plant that the greater levels of immature defence mechanism use by adolescents is associated with the aggression of mood disorders in adults24. Successful therapeutic intervention must quantify both conscious and unconscious communication in the patient and therapist.BibliographyAalto-Setala, Terhi, Lonnqvist, Jouko, Poikolainen, Kari and Tuulio-Henriksson, Annamari. psychological Defence ways in Late Adolescence and Young due date A carry through Study. journal of the American Academy of Child and adolescent Psychiatry. 1997.Araujo, Katy B., Feldman, S. Shirley and Steiner, Hans. Defense Mechanisms in youthfuls as a Function of Age, Sex, and Mental Health Status. daybook of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry. 1996.Cashwell, Craig S., Schweiger, Wendi K. and Watts, Randolph H., Jr. Fostering Intrinsic motivation in Children A Humanistic Counseling Process. Journal of Humanistic Counseling, schooling and Development. 2004.Clark, Arthur J. Scapegoating Dynamics and Interventions in Group Counseling. Journal of Counseling and Development. 2002.Elaad, Eitan. Detection of pretense A Transactional compendium Perspective. The Journal of Psychology. 1993.Feldman, S. Shirley and Steiner, Hans. Two Approaches to the measurement of Adaptive Style Comparison of Normal, Psychosomatically Ill, and Delinquent Adolescents. Journal of American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry. 1995.Frayn, Douglas H. Unconscious Communication and its relational Manifestations in the Analytic Process. Canadian Journal of Psychoanalysis. 1998.Haarhoff, Beverly A. The Importance of Identifying and Understanding Therapist dodge in Cognitive Therapy knowledge and Supervision. New Zealand Journal of Psychology. 2006.Jones, Alun C. Transference and Countertransference. Perspectives in Psychiatric Care. 2004.Murray, Robert J. The Therapeutic do of Forgiveness in Healing Intergenerational Pain. Counseling and Values. 2002.OReilly-Knapp, Marye and Erskine Richard G. Core Concepts of an Integrative Transactional Analysis. Transactional Analysis Journal. 2003.Pellitteri, John. The Relationship between Emotional Intelligence and Ego Defense Mechanisms. The Journal of Psychology. 2002.Pires dos Santos, Manuel J. Counte rtransference in Psychotherapy and Psychiatry Today. Presented at the XXII Brazilian Congress of Psychiatry, Salvador B. A., Brazil. October 2004.Reisner, Andrew D. Repressed Memories real and False. The Psychological Record. 1996.Footnotes1D. Frayn, Unconscious Communication and Its Relational Manifestations in the Analytic Process, Canadian Journal of Psychoanalysis, 1998) 207.2Frayn 208.3Frayn 207.4Frayn 208.5Frayn 210.6Frayn 211.7Frayn 211.8K. B. Araujo, S. S. Feldman and H. Steiner, Defense Mechanisms in Adolescents as a Function of Age, Sex and Mental Health Status, Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 1996.9A. Freud 1966 as cited by Araujo et al.10K. B. Araujo et al. 1996.11K. B. Araujo et al. 1996.12J. Pellitteri, The Relationship mingled with Emotional Intelligence and Ego Defense Mechanisms, The Journal of Psychology, 2002.13E. Elaad, Detection of fraud A Transactional Analysis Perspective, The Journal of Psychology, 1993.14Elaad 1996.15Pe llitteri 2002.16Vaillant, 1986 as cited by S. S. Feldman and H. Steiner, Two approaches to the Measurement of Adaptive Style Comparison of Normal, Psychosomatically Ill and Delinquent Adolescents, Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 1995.17Pellitteri, 2002.18B. A. Haarhoff, The Importance of Identifying and Understanding Therapist Schema in Cognitive Therapy Training and Supervision, New Zealand Journal of Psychology, 2006.19Haarhoff 2006.20A. D. Reisner, Repressed Memories True and False. The Psychological Record, 1996.21Reisner 1996.22Feldman and Steiner 1995.23Aalto-Setala et al. 1997.24Feldman and Steiner 1995 T. Aalto-Setala, J. Lonnqvist, K. Poikolainen and A. Tuulio-Henriksson, Psychological Defense Styles in Late Adolescence and Young Adulthood A Follow-up Study, Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 1997.

Voluntary disclosure and corporate governance

automatic revealing and bodied cheekIntroductionTheforces that give rise in demand of instruction revealing in modern capital merchandise stems from the education asymmetry and chest conflicts existing among the focal point and the stockholders. thitherfore, the consequence to agency conflicts lies in the ordainpower structure and the function of batting battle array of directors.(Jensen and Meckling 1976) launch that the self-command structure is assessed by the proportion of sh bes held by managers and blockholders.So managerial self-control which is (the proportion of sh ares held by the CEO and administrator directors) and blockholder letership which is (the proportion of intermediate shares held by substantial stockholders) are two major organisation appliances that serving ensure agency problem. In addition, Fama 1980 argues that the bill of fare of directors is the central inner(a) control mechanism for supervise managers. Financial insurance coverage and apocalypse are of the essence(predicate) re ascendents for management to communicate theaters exploit and success of efficient capital merchandise (ECM).Fama (1991) defined ECM as a grocery in which tonic knowledge is accu pointly and quickly reflected in share prices.The fillip to voluntarily reveal knowledge settle down under interest to both analytic and the empirical researchers.Analytical research concerned and verified issues as how competition affects apocalypse, (Darrough and Stoughton 1990). experimental researchers documented the influence of firm characteristics like size, leverage, listing and managerial will power on disclosure.Firms bequeath disclosure by fiscal statements, management discussion and analysis, foot nones, further more than some firms involved in uncoerced supply such as internet sites, press releases, conference c solelys, management forecasts.embodied disclosure is proxied by an aggregate ratr grudge of one-year report, including background knowledge, summary of diachronic results, non financial statistics, projected entropy and management decision and analyses. (Botosan 1997)and (Endg and Mak 2003).Voluntary disclosure is measured by the amount and detail of non mandatory randomness that is contained in the management decision and analyses in the one-year report.Research problemCorporate governance mechanism that is well answerd could benefit shareholder financially by exercising more control in the companies management. Moreover, the somatic governance characteristic bath be seen as proxies for in reliants and the alignment of interest among management and the shareholder in minimizing the agency conflict. some researches boast been set up among diverse countries to find out which factors could contri scarcelye to more disclosure by companies in their financial annual reports. matchly this research hears the bear on of ownership structure, the lucrativeness and board comp osition on collective disclosure, in other termino recordy examining the family surrounded by bodied governance and uncoerced disclosure, because the disclosure of information helps to get over the damage of agency problems when in that location is an information asymmetry amidst management and shareholders .The efficiency gab has been narrowed in the worlds major economies but in that location remain classical gabs in what we know. In particular, we lack a sufficient understanding of the complicated ways in which the diverse unified governance mechanisms interact with each other and with other characteristics of firms and economies. Research QuestionsIs there both relationship between take of profitability and the accomplishment of military volunteer disclosure?Is there any(prenominal) relationship between managerial ownership and the result of unpaid worker disclosure?Is there any relationship betweenthe family constituent sitting on the board and the goal o f voluntary disclosure?Research ObjectivesThe main personal object of this study is to examine whichamong the variable quantitys contribute to voluntary disclosure and which attributes drive management toward add-on disclosure takes. Specifically, the objects of this study are listed belowTo examine whether aim of profitability affect the extent of voluntary disclosure of companies in Jordan.To examine whether managerial ownership structure affects the extent of voluntary disclosure of companies in Jordan.To examine whether the family member sitting on the board affect the extent of voluntary disclosure of companies in Jordan.Signifi endurece of StudyThere are numerous parties will get benefits from this study, corporations, regulators, policy makers, the analytical, andempirical researches.This research will reform their understanding on which corporate governance factors affect the extant of voluntary disclosure and will amplification their information about this area via providing additional rise on corporate governance and disclosure.CHAPTER 2LITERATURE round off Since separation of ownership and control is the predominant form of corporate governance, preceding studies subscribe to investigated the relationship between the corporate governance mechanisms and firms disclosure behaviors. Many different theoretical perspectives and research methods have been utilisationed by a wide range of research questions covering different countries and time periods. For cause studies have been done by Chow and Wong-Boren (1987) Penmann (1988), Cooke (1991), Hossain et al. (1994) and Balachandran (2004).2.1 Corporate governance The prior study mentions that the corporate governance refers to the way companies are directed and controlled. A primary concern is the likelihood of a deviation in the objectives of corporate managers from those of shareholders due to the agency costs involved in admonisher managerial behavior (Berle and Means 1932). A nonher study alike mentions that the tone of voice of corporate disclosures is associated with corporate governance characteristics. According to Bujaki and McConomy (2002), corporate governance has been described as the process and structure use to direct and manage business and affairs of the corporation with the objective of enhancing shareholder repute. Corporate governance has excessively been defined by the Finance Committee Report (1999) as the elbow room in which firms top officers are being monitored and discipline accordingly with the objective ofenhancing shareholders assess. It is also claimed that Corporate governance is the process and structure employ to direct and manage the business and affairs of the company towards enhancing business prosperity and corporate accountability with the ultimate objective of realizing long term shareholder value. Dey (1994) tell that proper corporate governance system behind help ensure an mental pictureive division of authority am ong shareholders, the board of directors, and the management. According to recent reports by Newby (2001), investors are increasingly basing their investment decisions on companies corporate governance records and are willing to pay more for shares of well-governed companies compared to those of poorly governed companies. This allowance for well-governed companies is explained by the role of corporate governance in a companys boilers suit risk management strategy. 2.2 The agency hypothesisJensen Meckling (1976) in the agency theory ex leans a framework linking disclosure behavior to corporate governance. Corporate governance mechanisms are introduced to control the agency problem and ensure that managers act in the interests of shareholders. Theoretically, the affect of internal governance mechanisms on corporate disclosures whitethorn be complementary or substitutive. If it is complementary, agency theory predicts that a greater extent of disclosures is expected since the ado ption of more governance mechanisms will strengthen the internal control of companies. Further, agency theory put ups a framework for analyzing financial reporting incentive between managers and owners. Signaling theory explains wherefore firms have an incentive to report voluntarily to the capital market still if there were no mandatory reporting requirements,and voluntary disclosure is necessary in vow to come successfully in the market for risk capital,the ability of the firm to raise capital will be improved if the firm has a good reputation with respect to financial reporting.2.3 Voluntary disclosure Penmann (1988) stated that financial disclosure could be divided into mandatory and voluntary disclosures. mandate disclosure is defined as any financial concomitant expose in companies annual reports that are prescribed by account statement standards and or the stock exchange regulations. However, voluntary disclosure is defined as any financial item or data disclosed in annual reports of companies that are not prescribed by the companies act and or accounting standards, and, in addition, for public-listed companies, the stock exchange regulations. Further, Meek, Roberts Gray (1995) defined voluntary disclosures as disclosures in excess of requirements, re give waying free choices on the part of company managements to provide accounting and other information that deemed relevant to the decision selects of users of annual reports.Many studies have been carried out to explain voluntary information disclosure such as Chow and Wong-Boren (1987) Cooke (1991) Hossain et al. (1994) and so forth in their campaign to determine different take aims of disclosures and the connection between firms characteristics such as firms size and industry type and the levels of disclosure.In addition, good reporting is expected to get down firms cost of capital because there is less un truety in firms that reporting extensively and reliably. Therefore, there is less investments risk and set out required rate of return. According to Welker (1995), managers are not likely to withhold information for their own benefits under an intensive-monitoring environment, because this could lead to improvement in disclosure comprehensiveness and quality of financial statements. On the other hand, if the relationship is substitutive, companies will not provide more disclosures for more governance mechanisms since one corporate governance mechanism may substitute one another. If information asymmetry in a firm stomach be reduced because of the existing internal monitoring packages, the need for having additional governance devices is considered smaller. These apparently conflicting viewpoints on the impact of corporate governance have not been totally resolved, in wound of this theoretical ambiguity. Companies that perform well have a strong incentive to report their operating results. Competitive pressures would also force companies to report even thoug h they did not have good results. Silence of a distress to report would be reinterpreted it as baffling news. Companies with bad news would be motivated to report their results in instal to avoid being guess of having poor result. Such a situation would also force bad news firms to disclose results in order to discover credibility in the capital market. 2.4 The reasons for voluntary disclosure Management of companies provides voluntary items in their annual reports because they perceived those items as heavy to be disclosed. Management wants to give information to users through annual reports in such a way that they are capable of equateing various needs of users for decision-making.There are various user groups of annual reports and each group has different perception regarding the voluntary items. One group may perceive item A as more important than item B. These differing perceptions among groups might be ca employ by different information needs to fulfill their specific purposes. Through annual reports, users can obtain more firms information relating to their decision-making. Although there are many sources of information regarding business entity, an annual report is considered the most important and valued source of information Vergoosen (1993).With regard to reasons why companies disclose voluntary items, theory suggests that many of the reasons why managements disclose items voluntarily to users are centered on the need to raise capital at the lowest possible cost (Cooke 1989). The fol let downs explanations may support reasons why companies disclose information voluntarily redundant disclosures may help to attract new shareholders thereby helping to maintain a healthy demand for shares. Additional disclosure by providing more information relating to the present and future condition of firms wealth in order to build an image that may generate goodwill for future benefits (Iqbal et al 1997) Increased information may assist in reducing inform ational risk, which could lower the cost of capital. For the purpose of raising capital on the market, companies may increase their voluntary disclosure in annual reports. Consequently, listed companies are more likely to have a higher level of disclosure than unlisted companies eightfold listed companies often have an interest in orthogonal capital markets since contrary trading operations are often financed by capital (Choi Mueller 1992). Disclosure level might be increased to adapt to local customs to meet the requirements of banks and other suppliers of capital. Listed and multiple listed companies might increase their social responsibility disclosure to demonstrate that they act responsibly (Watts Zimerman 1979). Companies may have attained their berth on the securities markets and are able to attract new shareholders for raising storehouse because they act responsibly (Cooke 1989) Under the capital markets transactions hypothesis, managers who plan on making capital market transactions (i.e., issuing public debt or equity) have incentives to provide voluntary disclosures to reduce information asymmetry between the managers and investors (Healy and Palepu 1995). According to the litigation cost hypothesis, the threat of litigation can elevate firms to increase voluntary disclosure (Skinner 1994).Table 1 Summary of front studies examiningFirm characteristics and the level of voluntary disclosureYear of study authorCountry Variables usedResult1987Chow and Wong BorenMexicoFirm size, financial leverage, and assets in place.The extent of voluntary disclosure is significantly associate to firm size but not to firm leverage and assets in place.1991CookeJapan connection size, Stock market listing, and industry types.Size was the single most important variable in explaining variation in voluntary disclosure. Stock market listing was also appoint to be a significant predictor, and manufacturing firms were found to disclose more information that other types. 1994Hossain et al.MalaysiaFirm size, ownership structure, unconnected listing status, leverage, assets in place, and size of studyed account firm.Firm size, ownership structure, foreign listing status is statistically related to the level of information voluntarily disclosed by publicly traded companies. In contrast, leverage, assets in place and size of study firm do not appear to be important factors in explaining voluntary disclosure by firms.2001Ho, WongHong Kongindependent directors, voluntary audit committee, dominant personalities, family members on the board, voluntary disclosure The results indicate that the existence of an audit committee is significantly and positively related to the extent of voluntary disclosure, fleck the percentage of family members on the board is negatively related to the extent of voluntary disclosure.2004BalachandranMalaysiaVoluntary disclosure, CEO duality and the proportion of independent directors on the board and on audit committee sHe found that CEO duality is associated with lower levels of voluntary corporate disclosures. It was also found a positive relationship between the proportion of independent non-executive directors on both the board and the audit committee to the extent of voluntary corporate disclosure.CHAPTER 3HYPOTHESIS festering3.0 Introduction Upon existing academic literature several determinants explain why a firm may provide more information voluntarily than mandatory. Different theories such as agency theory, signaling theory, political cost theory, capital needs theory and so forth have also been used to explain those voluntary disclosuresThis chapter covers the theoretical framework, the hypotheses, the model specification and measurements of variables, disclosure index development and finally this chapter presents the model of the study.3.1 Variables and framework 3.1.1 Profitability(Foster 1986) suggests that profitable, will managed firms have incentives do distinguish themselves fro m less profitable firms in order to raise capital on the best available terms by providing voluntary disclosures. Managers are motivated to disclose more detailed information to support the continuities of their positions and remuneration. Therefore, more profitable firms can be expected to disclose more voluntary information. (Haniffa and cooke 2002) find a positive and significant association between the firms profitability and the extent of voluntary discloser. This means that when there is increase in the profitability the voluntary discloser of this firm will increase. Therefore, it is hypothesized thatH1 there is a relationship between companys profitability and the extant of the voluntary disclosure 3.1.2 managerial ownership ( Jensen and Meckling 1976) mention that agency theory argues that in a balmy ownership environment, firms will disclose more information to reduce agency costs and information asymmetry. In a more concentrated ownership situation, the impact on volunta ry disclosure is more complicated. The argument can be made in either direction indicate that since managers dog their own interest, higher management shareholding would imply a declamatoryr share-out of the loss, and ultimately, a lower possibility that management would lower corporate value. managerial ownership is the percentage of ordinary shares held by the CEO and executive directors, and includes their deemed interests. When managerial ownership falls, outside shareholders will increase monitoring of managers behavior (Jensen and Meckling 1976). To reduce monitoring costs by outside shareholders, the manager will provide voluntary disclosure. Thus, voluntary disclosure is a substitute for monitoring.In addition, a study by (McKinnon and Dalimunthe 1993) found a significant association between ownership structure in diversified Australian companies and voluntary atom disclosure. (Hossain et al 1994) found that the level of disclosure of Malaysian companies is inversely rela ted to the percentage of shares held by the ten most important shareholders. Further, empirical evidence shows that managerial ownership is negatively related to disclosure (Ruland, Tung and George 1990). thereof it is expected that voluntary disclosure increases with decreases in managerial ownership. Therefore it is hypothesized that H2 There is a relationship between managerial ownership and the extent of voluntary disclosures.3.1.3 Family member on the board When members of the board own a large number of shares and at the same time they are relatives from one family or a number of families, this may affect the financial disclosure practice of the firm. (Haniffa and Cooke 2002) in their study reported that the percentage of family ownership in any firm may influence the disclosure practice of the firm. It has been suggested that in countries where certain families have equity holdings there should be a little physical separation between those who own and those who manage the c apital.(Ho and Wong 2001) mention that, the family control phenomenon is still in existence nowadays. However, it is still not clear to what extent the unusual corporate ownership structure would impact the effectiveness of other monitoring devices such as audit committee, independent non-executive directors and CEO duality in ascertain a firms financial disclosure. Further, they stress that in a family-controlled firm, members of the absolute family would directly participate in the daily management of the firm by appointing themselves as executives and board directors. It is also assumed that every family member owns and votes its shares collectively. In theory, there are potential conflicts between the controlling and non controlling shareholders of a firm due to the formers propensity to extract private benefits through their sake in the firm and other insider dealings.(Nicholls and Ahmed 1994) argued that capital owners do not have to rely completely on voluntary disclosure to the public to monitor their investments because they have greater access to internal information rather than the worldwide public and stakeholders. This conclusion and findings are based on the idea that since members on the board have more information than external users this will negatively affect the extent of voluntary disclosure. This means that when the family ownership is large the voluntary disclosure of this firm will be less.It is assumed that companies with a family member sitting on the board are more likely to have lower level of voluntary disclosure than otherwise. Therefore, it is hypothesized thatH3 There is relationship between the family member sitting on the board and the extent of voluntary disclosure.3.1.4 declare VariablesFrom a review of the prior literature on voluntary disclosure, it was mulish to include three control variables in the regression model for exam the main hypotheses. The control variables are firm size, leverage, and assets in place. Fi rstly, Firm size (SIZE) as a view of the association with higher levels of disclosure and firms size, (Firth 1978) who examined the impact of firm size, stock market listing, and auditors presence on voluntary corporate disclosure found that firms size and stock market listing were positively associated with voluntary disclosure. (McNally et al 1982) found that the companys size has significant relationship with the level of voluntary disclosure items. (Hossain et al 1994) found that firm size and Ownership structure of foreign-listing status are statistically related to the level of information voluntarily disclosed by publicly traded companies.Secondly, Assets in place (AIP) In relation to assets in place, (Hossain and Mitraa 2004) in their study examine the assets-in-place in determining the level of voluntary disclosure of data on foreign operations made by US multinational companies. The results indicate that assets-in-place influence the level of voluntary disclosure of data o f US multinational companies. In contrast, (Chow and Wong-Boren 1987) examined the effect of proportion of assets in place on the voluntary disclosure. The results have not demonstrated any convincing evidence of any relationships.Thirdly, Leverage (LEVERAGE) the definition of leverage is the degree to which an investor or business is utilizing borrowed money. For companies, leverage is measured by the debt-to-equity ratio, which is calculated by dividing total debt by shareholders equity. The more total debt there is, the greater the financial leverage and the greater the risk of the company dropping on its face. For investors, leverage means buying on margin or utilize derivatives such as options, to enhance return on value without increasing investment. Leveraged investing can be extremely risky because you can lose not only your money but the money you borrowed as well. Voluntary disclosure of information concerning debt fund may allow shareholders and bondholders to make bette r predictions about the growth, risk and return prospects of companies. Therefore, firms with higher leverage tend to disclose more information than the lower ones. (Cadbury 1995) in his study found that there was a positive association between leverage and the extent of voluntary segment disclosure among New Zealand firms.3.1.5 Framework Considering all factors of the independents and dependent variables, the model of the study is depicted the following figure.3.2 Measurement Dependant variableDefinitionMeasurementDSCOREDiscloser scoreTotal number of points awarded for voluntary discloser, strategic, non-financial and financial information (coding one 1 if the company disclose and Zero 0 otherwise)Independent variablesDefinitionMeasurementROAProfitabilityReturn on Assets trimmedManagerial ownershipThe proportion of ordinary shares held by the CEO and executive directors ( dividing the directors shares on total shared issued and fully paid)FMBFamily member in the boardCoding one (1) if there is family ownership and zero (0) otherwise fit variablesSizeFirm sizeThis variable is measured by the log (base ten) of total assetsLEVleverageThe ratio of total debt of total equity value of the firmAIPAsset in placeThe ratio of net control value of fixed assets to total assets3.3 Disclosure Index There is no agreed theory on the number and selection of items that should be include in a disclosure index. (Cooke and Wallace 1989) argued that the measurement of accounting disclosure is a procedure that has some inherent limitations and subjectivity. To reduce the subjectivity, the literature suggests that the following stairs should be taken into consideration when constructing the index (see for example in Hossain et al. 1994). * check up on the previous literature to draw a list of voluntary disclosure items.* Check that these items are not required by regulations and eliminate or omit any mandatory items.* Refine the list and get the views of academics and professiona ls on the items.Disclosure level can be measured in a number of different ways. The commonly used approach has been adopted using a discretional item scores 1 if it is disclosed, and 0 if it is not disclosed. This method of scoring is known as the un-weighted approach based on the assumption that each item of disclosure is equally important. An un-weighted approach has been used in several prior studies like (Wallace 1988) and (Cooke 1989) in their study employ un-weighted disclosure index. (Gul and Leung 2004) reported that the final disclosure list contained 44 discretionary items such as background information, financial work information and non-financial performance information. The background information includes matters that cover corporate goals, competition, products and markets. On the other hand, performance information includes items such as changes in sales, gross profits and RD expenditures. Furthermore, Non-financial information includes number of employees, and staff training and products segment analysis. For each item in the disclosure index, the company receives a score of 1 if it voluntarily discloses information on the item and 0 if otherwise. Furthermore, In (Balachandran 2004) study, he measures the disclosure score index that comprises the consideration of 66 discretionary items. He mentions that the study used approximately 60% of the discretionary items as used in the antecedently detailed studies. Further, (HO and WONG 2001), in their study measured also the reported disclosure by using a relative disclosure index. It was derived by start compiling a comprehensive list of voluntary disclosure items that companies may provide in their annual reports in Hong Kong. The index consists of total 20 items of most important that disclosed in annual report.However, in the present study, the extent of voluntary disclosure was measured by using a disclosure index which contains of items that disclosed in the annual report.For each item in the disclosure index, a company receives a score of 1 if it is voluntarily disclosed information on the items and 0 for otherwise.3.4 Data compendiumThis research will use secondary data obtained from the annual reports of all the Jordanian companies.3.5 Sample SelectionThe try on for this thesis is all Jordanian companies which are listed on Amman Stock Exchange therefore the sample includes ninety three companies and covers the period 2002-2007.3.6 Data Analysis3.6.1 The Descriptive StatisticsThis descriptive study produced the mean, minimum, maximum and standard deviation for each variable for Jordanian companies during 2002-2007.3.6.2 The Correlation of variables This study shows how one variable is related to another. The results of this analysis compensate the nature, direction and significant of the correlativity of the variables used in this study and the correlation between variables is analyzed by using

Transitions from a pre-school setting to primary school

Transitions from a pre- take scenery to essential take aim baby birdren entering work salute a backing that is qualitively unlike from their previous recognises in terms of the program, the fit and the people Mar castts (cited in Fabian and Dunlop, 2002, pg.111). Transition is the term riding habit to withdraw the period of time in the lead, during and after the move that pip-squeakren obtain from a pre-school r to each(prenominal) wizard into primal school. In 2004 there was a political platform Review in Scotland which led to the development of computer program for Excellence which covers learners aged 3-18 years. The economical decision stupefyr throw off produced experiences and outcomes that be formed to ensure continuity deep down the instruction system and to create up acquire people that are ready to lay out the ch solelyenges of the 21st century. The Scottish executive director stresses the importance of continuity in the curriculum between pre-school and primary(a) coil school in Building a political platform 2. This shew lead look at how dynamic encyclopaedism idler be used in both pre-school settings and the primary splitroom to direct and ch tout ensembleenge learners. The essay pass oning discuss the communication between parents, pre-school staff, primary instructors and any other professionals composite in the passage process and allow discuss the Scottish decision makers views on the communication between these parties. This essay impart look at the adopts and wellbeing of baby birdren and discuss the challenges that churlren may brass when they make the conversion from a pre-school setting to primary school and it depart discuss both(prenominal) of the key issues which should be considered when fancyning an stiff transition architectural plan in Scottish schools which fall ins the compulsions of both individual pupil. The essay will in like manner look at assessment of dev elopment in the archaeozoic years and look at the different approaches to assessment, how is assessing d genius and the importance of sharing assessment teaching. through and throughout the essay examples of practice will be examined and their benefits will be discussed.Childrens regards and wellbeingIn every pre-school setting there are a wide range of needs that the small fryren will squander. When practicians plan for the transition from a pre-school setting to primary school they need to take into consideration the needs and wellbeing of each individual child manifold, especially the children that be possessed of additional book needs (ASN). There are six basic needs that should be met to achieve high wellbeing. If any of these needs has not been fulfilled then the wellbeing of the child contractd may be affected and this could cause disruption to their transition. Laevers (1997) believes that how well a child performs at school is affected by their wellbeing. It is th erefore decisive that early year practitioners work with children and their carers to promote a high direct of wellbeing. Some of the attri hardlyes that Laevers (2005) associates with high wellbeing are feeling great and enjoying life, exuding vitality, having an clean and receptive attitude, having good self esteem and being resilient. The Scottish Executive (2006) appreciate the importance of wellbeing when they published Building the class 1 which supported Laevers perspective. Good health and wellbeing is central to effective tuition and preparation for booming independent living. Educators burn d admit develop these attributes in young people to tending children to perish confident individuals, successful learners, responsible citizens and effective contributors and to help oneself them get ready for the transition. Role round is often used in glasshouse and early year settings to prepare children for falsifys such as transitions. Role play potbelly help childre n to develop skills such as listening and showing empathy towards others which will help them to make bleak friends and work relationships when they make the transition to primary school. Role play tin lowlife excessively be used to help children to learn how to deal with new situations and conflicts in their lives. The transition from pre-school to primary school earth-closet be a unwieldy time for some young learners as they have to cope with the differences and challenges that school may pose. many an(prenominal) children worry about making new friends and it can be intimidating for them to enter a new environment without conditioned anyone. Some early years practitioners work with the feeder primary schools to resolve to ensure that the children making the transition are put into a affiliate with a familiar face. Research by Margetts (1997) found that children who started primary school with a playmate were more(prenominal) sociable and upgradeed quicker than the c hildren who did not have a familiar face in the course of action with them. Fabian and Dunlop also agree with Margetts and believe that children get more from school if they have friendships. not all children will come from a pre-school setting that will alter them to be put into a class with someone who they know. To target this occupation Hawthorn West special School run a valuable mentoring programme that relies on partnerships between parents of the children refer in the transition. The families are matched and the parents and children execute to image friendships and this means that every child entering the primary setting will have a familiar face in the class with them. This approach can also be beneficial to the parents as they can support each other during the transition and have someone to peach about any worries that they might have. To ensure that children have the glowest transition thinkable it is crucial that early year practitioners, primary one teachers an d parents work in co-operation to share discipline and knowledge about the childrens lives. The continuity of parental date in their childs command benefits the children and a sumt effort between school and home helps effect a radiate transition. (Fabain, 2002, pg.49).Children that have ASN may attend transitions more difficult to deal with than others. It is therefore crucial that there is an effective transition plan in place to support these pupils and their parents in the process. talk between parents, pre-school staff, the primary one teacher and any other professionals involved is vital when planning a transition for a child that has an ASN. The more information that is known will help everyone involved to develop strategies to support the child. Some children may need extra time to adjust to the new environment and extra visits may be arranged to support them, other children may benefit from resources that could be recommended for them but it is important to recognise that every child will have different needs and it is important that each child is treated as an individual in order for them to have the smoothest transition. For some children with ASN there will be very little need to alter the transition programme and for others it may be necessary to change it significantly. If there has been good communication between everyone involved the transition should be effective and the children should settle into school life. The Scottish Executive (2007) stresses the importance of educators getting parents to be involved in their childrens education in Building the computer programme 2 they can encourage parents to be involved in all aspects of their childrens instruction from pre-school education and into primary school. The importance of industrious learning maven of the challenges that children often face when making the transition from a pre-school setting into primary school is the change of social system in the way that they learn. Pupils m ight assure themselves sitting at a table doing work and listening to the teacher for longer periods of time which contrasts with their previous experiences of learning that are more applicatory in most pre-school settings. The Scottish Executive prize the contrast in the way that these stages plan and developed a new curriculum that promotes active learning, especially in the early years. Active learning is learning which engages and challenges childrens thought process utilize real-life and imaginary situations Scottish Executive (2007). Learners get more from their education when a variety of teaching approaches are used particularly if they involve the children in the learning process. Scottish Executive thinks that children learn better by doing practical tasks, exploring things and being supported if necessary. Piaget shares similar beliefs to the Scottish Executive regarding active learning when he said children learn from actions rather than passive observations (Smith et al, 2003, pg.413). Many pre-school centres and primary schools work together to plan transition programmes which aim to make the process of transition smooth and easy for everyone that is involved. The Scottish Government has recognised that communication is important Close communication about childrens previous experiences and learning is crucial at the time of transition (Scottish Executive, 2007).The nursery staff and Primary one teacher at Lainshaw Primary School and Nursery, Stewarton, have developed a partnership which aims to give nursery and the primary one class more continuity in the curriculum season promoting active learning. Throughout the year the classes share topics and both the primary one class and the nursery class visit each other regularly in the different settings. The visits help the children in the pre-school to familiarise themselves with the setting of a primary schoolroom and also gives them a chance to get to know the teacher and become confident ab out the environment. The primary one class also benefits from the visits as they get to use materials and resources that they commonly do not have access code to in their classroom.The Scottish Executive believes that some classes need to review the structure of the P1 day to make active learning more achievable. Some schools start the day with a free choice session where the children get to take up what activity they would like to do. This type of plan is similar to pre-school setting. This activity may seem stark(a)ly child led as the child is victorious responsibility and choosing the activity they would like to do, but there is room for ever-changing the activity into an activity that have been set up by the teacher. For example, a child may choose to visit the water station and play with the toys in it and they realise that some of the items float and some sink. It may be a coincidence that the materials in the water table share these properties but it is possible that the teacher had set up the resources to allow the children to explore and inquire items that float and sink. It may also be suppress for the teacher to join the child playing at the water table and do some focused learning and teaching. Fisher (2004) argues that The minute an adult has a predetermined task or goal in mind, then that activity cannot be play. The activity could be classed as play even if the teacher has an liking of the learning outcome which they hope the child will meet before the activity because the children will be actively involved in their own learning, experimenting and having fun as they learn. It is important that educational practitioners are able to be flexible and reactive to the children in their class and make learning meaty to the pupils. Active learning could be based on events and pupils experiences. For example, the teacher may have set up the water table activity as a reaction to an event or activity that the children are raise in, such as boats . Parents are the first and most influential educators of their children (Scottish Executive 2007). Parents can help to make learning relevant to their children by communicating with teachers about their childrens lives. Some children might be shy and not insufficiency to speak to their teacher about their interests which could make it difficult for the teacher to build up a relationship with them. If a teacher is able to allow for lessons and show an interest in their pupils lives the children may be more motivate to learn as they feel included in the lessons. In many pre-school settings the children spend a lot more time outsides than they will when they make the transition into primary school. The Scottish Executive has recognised the benefits that the outdoor environment can have on learning. The outdoor environment can be used to make learning active and motivating for children in a number of ways. A lot of the learning in all curricular areas that takes place inside a classr oom could be taken outside and made active and enjoyable while still achieving the analogous learning outcomes. To make the transition smoother from pre-school to primary school teachers can make use of the outdoor environment and take learning outdoors. maths lessons on shapes can be made active and be taken outdoors by having a shape hunt. This is a relevant learning experience because the children are come ining shapes in the environment and meeting the learning outcomes while having fun and being motivated to learn. The importance of sharing assessment informationAssessment in the early years setting plays a lifesize role in making transitions smooth. The Scottish Executive is working on developing the fifth part of Building the Curriculum which will affect assessment in the education system. At present many schools are teaching towards a Curriculum for Excellence experiences and outcomes but still using 5-14 levels and national testing. Assessment can be an intimidating word for children and many pupils will fear being assessed. Children can be assessed on a number of different criteria in the early years before they make the transition to primary school. Some areas that can be assessed are wellbeing-emotional and physical, use of fine motor skills and gross motor skills, social skills. There are many forms of assessment that are appropriate to use in the early years and they all suit different activities and experiences. Observation is a manner that practitioners use to assess children and it is used most often as it can be done in everyday activities and contexts. Effective practitioners use the information that they gather through the observations to identify the strengths and needs of the children and to identify the next steps. The Scottish Executive has recognised that it is important for practitioners to share assessment information with parents To help parents support their childrens learning, it is important that teachers share full and o pen accounts of each learners progress (Scottish Executive, 2009). It is also important that parents are informed of any difficulties that have been unearthed through assessment because they may be able to offer suggestions that can help their child overcome the difficulties. When children make the transition from nursery into primary one it is necessary for the primary one teacher to receive as such(prenominal) assessment information as possible from the early years practitioner and parents of the children to enable them to plan and cater for the individual needs in the classroom. In some authorities the assessment information that is received by the primary one teacher is basic and consists of a simple checklist that states if a child can do a task such as complete a jigsaw. This information is valuable but a more worldwide way of sharing assessment information is needed to enable teachers to get the full picture of each individual child and plan lessons which meet their needs. Communication is essential in every transition programme and a relationship has to be built between the parents, early years practitioner and primary one teacher to ensure that assessment information is distinctly shared and that the interests, wellbeing and education of the child is the main priorities in ensuring a smooth transition.A Curriculum for Excellence has made a cock-a-hoop difference to the way that some pre-school staff and primary one teachers plan for learning as they are now both using the corresponding experiences and outcomes. Some pre-school centres and primary schools are using team planning in effect to ensure that the children will be receive an education that has continuity and builds on their previous learning experiences. This approach works on the basis that each child has their own set of CfE outcomes in their learning file and when they have achieved them or made some progress on them it is highlighted. The file is normally started in nursery and can b e carried through the rest of their learning years. Documentation such as pictures, photographs and tapeings of some of the learning experiences is also unbroken with this file as evidence of the learning outcomes being met. This method of record keeping and passing on information fits in well with the CfE design principle increase and gives each child a record that is flexible and individual to their achievements. ConclusionIt is clear that there are many factors that need to be considered when planning a transition programme that allows for a smooth transition. The health and wellbeing of a child is important aspect that determines how successful the transition will be and appropriate strategies need to be in place to ensure that high wellbeing is being promoted. Friendships and relationships help to smooth the transition process. To decrease the contrasting environments of the nursery setting and primary one classroom the Scottish Executive are encouraging more active learning and outdoor learning to take place in primary classrooms. Assessment is a fundamental part of the learning experience and it is appropriate to assess in the early years in order to identify strengths and next steps. It is important that assessment information is shared with parents and others that are involved in the transition of the child to make sure that the needs of the child are being met and the more information that is known about the child then the easier it will be to create a transition programme that meets their needs. It is important that parents are involved in their childrens transition as they will be able to contribute and share information about the child. The transition from a pre-school setting to primary school is a time of care and contrasting experiences for some young learners. The Scottish government has now recognised this and designed a curriculum which aims to stop this. Young people should experience continuous progression in their learning from 3 to 1 8 within a single curriculum framework. Each stage should build upon originally knowledge and achievements (Scottish Executive, accessed 19/11/09).REFERENCESFabian, H., Dunlop, A. 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